The form of manga as speech-balloon-based comics more specifically originated from translations of American comic strips in the 1920s, with several early such manga read left-to-right and the longest-running pre-1945 manga being the Japanese translation of the American comic strip Bringing Up Father.
The word manga first came into usage in the late 18th ctury, though it only came to refer to various forms of cartooning in the 1890s and did not become a common word until around 1920.
Historians and writers on manga history have described two broad and complemtary processes shaping modern manga. Their views differ in the relative importance they attribute to the role of cultural and historical evts following World War II versus the role of pre-war, Meiji, and pre-Meiji Japanese culture and art: One view, represted by other writers such as Frederik L. Schodt; Kinko Ito; and Adam L. Kern; stresses continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions, including pre-war, Meiji, and pre-Meiji;
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The other view states that, during and after the occupation of Japan by the allies (1945–1952), manga was strongly shaped by the Americans' cultural influces, including comics brought to Japan by the GIs, and by images and themes from US television, film, and cartoons (especially Disney).
According to Sharon Kinsella, the booming Japanese publishing industry helped create a consumer-orited society in which publishing giants like Kodansha could shape popular taste.
And in the early 19th ctury with such works as Aikawa Minwa's Manga hyakujo (1814) and the celebrated Hokusai Manga books (1814–1834) containing assorted drawings from the sketchbooks of the famous ukiyo-e artist Hokusai who lived from 1760–1849.
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Schodt points to the existce in the 13th ctury of illustrated picture scrolls like Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga that told stories in sequtial images with humor and wit.
Schodt also stresses continuities of aesthetic style and vision betwe ukiyo-e and shunga woodblock prints and modern manga (all three fulfill Eisner's criteria for sequtial art).
While there are disputes over whether Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga or Shigisan-gi was the first manga, both scrolls date back to about the same time period. However, others like Isao Takahata, Studio Ghibli co-founder and director, contds there is no linkage with the scrolls and modern manga.
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Schodt and Nash also see a particularly significant role for kamishibai, a form of street theater where itinerant artists displayed pictures in a lightbox while narrating the story to audices in the street.
Torrance has pointed to similarities betwe modern manga and the Osaka popular novel betwe the 1890s and 1940 and argues that the developmt of widespread literacy in Meiji and post-Meiji Japan helped create audices for stories told in words and pictures.
Kinko Ito also roots manga historically in aesthetic continuity with pre-Meiji art, but she sees its post-WWII history as driv in part by consumer thusiasm for the rich imagery and narrative of the newly developing manga tradition. Ito describes how this tradition has steadily produced new gres and markets, e.g., for girls' (shōjo) manga in the late 1960s and for Ladies Comics (redisu) in the 1980s.
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Ev though Eastern comics are gerally held separate from the evolution of Western comics and Western comic art probably originated in 17th ctury Italy,
Although Kern does not believe that kibyoshi were a direct forerunner of manga, for Kern the existce of kibyoshi nonetheless points to a Japanese willingness to mix words and pictures in a popular story-telling medium.
The first recorded use of the term manga to mean whimsical or impromptu pictures comes from this tradition in 1798, which, Kern points out, predates Katsushika Hokusai's better known Hokusai Manga usage by several decades.
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Illustrated magazines for Western expatriates introduced Western-style satirical cartoons to Japan in the late 19th ctury. New publications in both the Western and Japanese styles became popular. At the d of the 1890s, American-style newspaper comics supplemts began to appear in Japan,
1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in the Jiji Shinpō newspaper—the first use of the word manga in its modern sse,
Similarly, Inoue sees manga as a mixture of image- and word-ctered elemts, each pre-dating the Allied occupation of Japan. In his view, Japanese image-ctered or pictoctric art ultimately derives from Japan's long history of gagemt with Chinese graphic art,
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Whereas word-ctered or logoctric art, like the novel, was stimulated by social and economic needs of Meiji and pre-war Japanese nationalism for a populace unified by a common writt language. Both fuse in what Inoue sees as a symbiosis in manga.
The roots of the wide-eyed look commonly associated with manga dates back to shōjo magazine illustrations during the late 19th to early 20th cturies. The most important illustrators associated with this style at the time were Yumeji Takehisa and particularly Jun'ichi Nakahara, who, influced by his work as a doll creator, frequtly drew female characters with big eyes in the early 20th ctury. This had a significant influce on early manga, particularly shōjo manga, evidt in the work of influtial manga artists such as Macoto Takahashi and Riyoko Ikeda.
However, other writers such as Takashi Murakami have stressed evts after WWII. Still, Murakami sees Japan's surrder and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as having created long-lasting scars on the Japanese artistic psyche, which, in this view, lost its previously virile confidce in itself and sought solace in harmless and cute (kawaii) images.
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However, Takayumi Tatsumi sees a special role for a transpacific economic and cultural transnationalism that created a postmodern and shared international youth culture of cartooning, film, television, music, and related popular arts, which was, for Tatsumi the crucible in which modern manga have developed,
For Murakami and Tatsumi, trans-nationalism (or globalization) refers specifically to the flow of cultural and subcultural material from one nation to another.
In their usage, the term does not refer to international corporate expansion, nor to international tourism, nor to cross-border international personal fridships, but to ways in which artistic, aesthetic, and intellectual traditions influce each other across national boundaries.
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An example of cultural trans-nationalism is the creation of Star Wars films in the US, their transformation into manga by Japanese artists, and the marketing of Star Wars manga to the US.
Thus, these scholars see the history of manga as involving historical continuities and discontinuities betwe the aesthetic and cultural past as it interacts with post-WWII innovation and trans-nationalism.
After World War II, Japanese artists subsequtly gave life to their own style during the occupation (1945–1952) and post-occupation years (1952-early 1960s), wh a previously militaristic and ultranationalist Japan was rebuilding its political and economic infrastructure.
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Those policies did not prevt the publication of other kinds of material, including manga. Furthermore, the 1947 Japanese Constitution (Article 21) prohibited all forms of csorship.
In the forefront of this period are two manga series and characters that influced much of the future history of manga. These are Osamu Tezuka's Mighty Atom (Astro Boy in the United States; begun in 1951) and Machiko Hasegawa's Sazae-san (begun in 1946).
Tezuka never explained why Astro Boy had such a highly developed social conscice nor what kind of robot programming could make him so deeply affiliative.
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Both seem innate to Astro Boy, and represt a Japanese sociality and community-orited masculinity differing very much from the Emperor-worship and militaristic obedice forced during the previous period of Japanese imperialism.
Astro Boy quickly became (and remains) immsely popular in Japan and elsewhere as an icon and hero of a new world of peace and the runciation of war, as also se in Article 9 of the Japanese constitution.
By contrast, Sazae-san (meaning Ms. Sazae) was drawn starting in 1946 by Machiko Hasegawa, a young woman artist who made her heroine a stand-in for millions of Japanese m and especially wom rdered homeless by the war.
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Sazae-san does not face an easy or simple life, but, like Astro Boy, she too is highly affiliative and is deeply involved with her immediate and extded family. She is also a very strong character, in striking contrast to the officially sanctioned Neo-Confucianist principles of feminine meekness and obedice to the good wife, wise mother (良妻賢母 , ryōsai kbo) ideal taught by the previous military regime.
Tezuka and Hasegawa were also both stylistic innovators. In Tezuka's cinematographic technique, the panels are like a motion picture that reveals details of action bordering on slow motion as well as rapid zooms from distance to close-up shots.
More critically, Tezuka synchronised the placemt of the panel with the reader's viewing speed to simulate moving pictures. Hce in manga production, as in film production, the person who decides the allocation of panels (Komawari) is credited as the author, while most drawings are done by assistants. This kind of visual dynamism was widely adopted by later manga artists.
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Betwe 1950 and 1969, increasingly large audices for manga emerged in Japan with the solidification of its two main marketing gres, shōn manga aimed at boys and shōjo manga aimed at girls.
Two very popular and influtial male-authored manga for girls from this period were Tezuka's 1953-1956 Ribon no Kishi (Princess Knight or Knight in Ribbons) and Mitsuteru Yokoyama 1966 Mahōtsukai Sarii (Little Witch Sally).
Ribon no Kishi dealt with the advtures of Princess Sapphire of a fantasy kingdom who had be born with male and
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